Cattle

How cattle have been used in NZ

Thousands of cattle are used in Aotearoa for science. This sadly makes sense when you consider how widely they are exploited for their milk and their bodies.

The species of cattle is simplified to cows by many people. Actually, only the mothers of the species are called cows. Heifers are female cattle before they become mothers. Calves are their babies. The males are referred to as bulls (or steers if castrated).

Animal agriculture:

Thousands of cattle are used in Aotearoa every year in research aimed at trying to sustain, enhance and make more money for the animal agriculture industry. Cattle in NZ have been used in the following ways for research:

  • Research into decreasing their negative environmental impact. This can include
    • glueing urine sensors around their vulva, researching ways to reduce urine nitrogen output.
    • respiration chambers, researching ways to reduce methane produced in their digestive system.
  • Finding ways to increase the survival rate of calves until they are sent for slaughter or decrease their cost, including
    • understanding dehydration as a cause of mortality
    • ways to feed and house calves
    • evaluating enrichment during rearing
  • Better understanding body condition and fertility of cows, including
    • artificial insemination
    • oestrus synchronisation in dairy herds
    • trying to speed up the time to get cows pregnant again after calving
    • studying the relationship of body condition to hunger, disease, and fertility
  • Genetic research, including
    • identifying genes for desired and undesired productivity traits
    • genetic manipulation to insert desired traits into their DNA (for example, to change their milk composition)
    • cloning research, trying to increase the occurrence of desired traits in the population
  • Disease research, which often involves making the animals sick on purpose, includes studies into
    • lameness causes and treatment
    • mastitis (common infection of the udder in dairy cows)
    • fungal and parasitic infections
  • Housing and herd management, including research into
    • bedding and floor types
    • shelter and shade
    • hygiene practices
  • Trying to find more “humane” slaughter methods.
  • Researching different types of pain relief for standard procedures in the animal agriculture industry (i.e. dehorning, castration, C-section)
  • Testing effects and safety of chemicals and animal remedies, including
    • medications
    • supplements and additives
    • fertilizers
  • Research into increasing milk or muscle (beef) production in other ways than breeding. This research can aim at
    • measuring digestibility of individual food samples
    • testing benefits of food combinations
    • testing feed additives
  • For some research, cattle are fistulated, meaning
    • a hole is cut into their flank, creating a permanent opening into the rumen (the biggest of their stomachs).
    • This hole is then plugged with a rubber fistula that can be opened to take samples.
  • Additional calf exploitation:
    • Calves and calf foetuses are killed, and the blood is drained from their bodies to be used in other research (more info coming soon!). 

Note: This is not a comprehensive list. For more details and referenced examples of how cows are used, see the case studies section at the bottom of this page.

Research on cows in the news

Mycoplasma Bovis

"Researchers will measure how M. Bovis impacts infected animals and herds, including physical signs, effects on milk yield and quality, weight gain in cattle, and the duration of these effects." Read more.

Cow shock collars

"Animals wear GPS-enabled collars that identify their location relative to invisible fence lines created on a digital farm map. The animals are trained to be guided by audio prompts (beeps) from the collars when required. As an animal gets close to a virtual fence, a series of beeps alerts them to the fence boundary. If they cross the fence line, they receive a "disincentive", a mild electric shock, and are guided back inside the line." Read more.

Bobby calves

Bobby calves (male calves of dairy cows) are normally unwanted by the dairy industry. Researchers are cross-breeding dairy cows with beef breeds so that bobby calves can be killed and eaten after a year, rather than being killed as "excess" after 4 days. Read more

Climate change

AgResearch scientists have been given $10 million to develop cattle better adapted to warmer temperatures and to lower methane emissions. 

"We've already produced some cattle, and they have a different coat colour – the black has been reduced to a greyish colour, and then we'll see if it reduces heat gain in those animals."

"We can then identify the underlying gene variants; once these are known, you can take them in isolation. We'll also be looking at other eco-efficient variants such as improved feed conversion efficiency or reduced urinary nitrogen excretion." Read more.

High impact studies 

Every year, the NZ Government reports on the use of animals for science that was rated as high or very high impact (i.e. cause the most harm or stress to the animals involved). Those are either very severe, very long in duration, or both.

In 2020, one cow was graded D because she started to limp from her foot hurting.

In 2019, no high or very high impact studies involving cattle in the MPI report.

In 2018, cattle were used in high-impact studies:

  • Calves were disbudded, and controlled pressure was put on the wound edge in several spots and several times during the day. Their reaction to pressure led to the higher-than-expected grading.
  • Cows had a fistula surgically put in their flank to collect rumen fluid samples.
  • Calves were disbudded without pain medication as a control in a pain medication study. After the dehorning, most animals received pain meds.

Overview 

The figures in the table below have been provided by MPI. 

How cattle were used for science in NZ:

Purpose 2018 2019 2020
Basic biological research 15,586 9,747 9,537
Veterinary research 44,059 39,737 14,360
Teaching 19,939 20,473 14,536
Animal husbandry research 5,102 6,305 7,555
Medical research 0 732 9
Testing 4,402 3,866 90
Environmental management 11,609 560 592
Species conservation 0 0 0
Production of biological agents 1,235 2,876 7
Development of alternatives 0 0 0
Producing offspring with compromised welfare 0 0 0
Other 588 1,299 251
Total number used 102,520 81,595 46,937
Animals killed 1,042 991 1,626
Animals killed that were bred but not used  NA 0 0
Total number including those bred and killed but weren't used NA 81,595 49,937

The figures in the table above were provided by MPI. 

Where cattle have been used

Cattle are used for research, testing and teaching purposes by universities such as Lincoln University (who have their own research dairy farm) and Massey University (they also have their own dairy farms) by private companies such as Abacus Bio Limited and Cognosco, by crown institutes such as AgResearch, by industry bodies such as Dairy NZ and by other organisations and individuals. Find out more.

Where cattle have been sourced from

Cattle used in science are sourced from commercial establishments, farms, public sources, breeding units and other sources. Find out more.

Take action!


Further reading

 

Case studies involving cattle


Here you can view real-life examples of how cattle have been used for research, testing and teaching purposes in NZ. More publications will be added as we find them!

Summary:  Cows with fertility problems were treated with hormones for ten days or left untreated. All were then artificially inseminated.


Procedure: Phantom cows (non-pregnant cows that do not show fertility signs) were treated with a 10-day progesterone-based synchronisation program before artificial insemination. Untreated phantom cows were used as control. No Animal Ethics Committee application is stated; maybe it was unnecessary as the farmers simply incorporated suggested procedures into their routines.

Purpose:  To test if a progesterone-based synchronisation program is cost-effective to avoid phantom cows. Phantom cows are animals who are inseminated, do not show oestrus signs, but don't become pregnant. These animals can impact profits for farmers. 

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2020

Read more..

Summary:  Cows with fertility problems were treated with hormones for ten days or left untreated. All were then artificially inseminated.


Procedure: Phantom cows (non-pregnant cows that do not show fertility signs) were treated with a 10-day progesterone-based synchronisation program before artificial insemination. Untreated phantom cows were used as control. No Animal Ethics Committee application is stated; maybe it was unnecessary as the farmers simply incorporated suggested procedures into their routines.

Purpose:  To test if a progesterone-based synchronisation program is cost-effective to avoid phantom cows. Phantom cows are animals who are inseminated, do not show oestrus signs, but don't become pregnant. These animals can impact profits for farmers. 

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2020

Summary:  Pregnant cows were fed with or without a specific feed additive. After birth, all were fed the same diet. Blood samples were taken in the weeks around birth.


Procedure: Cows in late pregnancy were grazed on pasture and supplemented with maize silage for about two weeks before calving. The silage contained Zeolite A (synthetic sodium aluminosilicate) or nothing as control. After calving, all animals received the same diet without zeolite, but calcium carbonate was added for four days after calving. Blood samples were taken before, during, and after calving.

Purpose:  To test zeolite as a late-pregnancy supplement against hypocalcemia (low calcium). An estimated 40 to 65% of dairy cows get hypocalcemia at the start of lactation, which is a health risk and reduces productivity. Zeolites are minerals that can bind calcium, so it passes the digestion tract unused. The created lack of calcium is supposed to release hormones that get more calcium out of the food.

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2020

Read more..

Summary:  Pregnant cows were fed with or without a specific feed additive. After birth, all were fed the same diet. Blood samples were taken in the weeks around birth.


Procedure: Cows in late pregnancy were grazed on pasture and supplemented with maize silage for about two weeks before calving. The silage contained Zeolite A (synthetic sodium aluminosilicate) or nothing as control. After calving, all animals received the same diet without zeolite, but calcium carbonate was added for four days after calving. Blood samples were taken before, during, and after calving.

Purpose:  To test zeolite as a late-pregnancy supplement against hypocalcemia (low calcium). An estimated 40 to 65% of dairy cows get hypocalcemia at the start of lactation, which is a health risk and reduces productivity. Zeolites are minerals that can bind calcium, so it passes the digestion tract unused. The created lack of calcium is supposed to release hormones that get more calcium out of the food.

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2020

Summary:  Some cows in several dairy herds were selected, and their vaginal discharge was measured and sampled. They were then impregnated as per standard agricultural practice.


Procedure: Around 40 animals per herd were chosen in 100 dairy cow herds. They were checked for any diseases before the mating season and excluded if they were pregnant or sick or if the farmer intended to kill them soon. The vaginal discharge was measured using a rubber scoop attached to a steel rod, and a uterine swap sample was taken (using a brush mounted on a stylet). All animals were artificially impregnated, and bulls were introduced to the herds after. A transrectal pregnancy diagnosis was made. The study concludes that at least 20% of cows have endometritis before mating season.

Purpose:  To estimate the percentage of NZ dairy cows with endometritis, and to see if the test method influences the result. Endometritis reduces fertility and, therefore, productivity.

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2020

Read more..

Summary:  Some cows in several dairy herds were selected, and their vaginal discharge was measured and sampled. They were then impregnated as per standard agricultural practice.


Procedure: Around 40 animals per herd were chosen in 100 dairy cow herds. They were checked for any diseases before the mating season and excluded if they were pregnant or sick or if the farmer intended to kill them soon. The vaginal discharge was measured using a rubber scoop attached to a steel rod, and a uterine swap sample was taken (using a brush mounted on a stylet). All animals were artificially impregnated, and bulls were introduced to the herds after. A transrectal pregnancy diagnosis was made. The study concludes that at least 20% of cows have endometritis before mating season.

Purpose:  To estimate the percentage of NZ dairy cows with endometritis, and to see if the test method influences the result. Endometritis reduces fertility and, therefore, productivity.

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2020

Summary:  Newborn calves were raised on various milk, pasture, and pellets combinations. They were slaughtered at two years old, and their “quality” was measured.


Procedure: Two hundred calves up to two weeks old were fed either:
a) a high milk diet with unlimited access to pasture before weaning at 12 weeks or
b) a low milk diet with pelleted concentrates before weaning at 7 to 8 weeks.
All calves were disbudded at 10 weeks and had unlimited access to a high- or low-quality pasture from weaning until 7 months old. From 7 months to slaughter at around two years old, all animals were treated the same, pasture-based with silage feeding. They were weighed regularly until standard commercial slaughter (electrical stunning and cutting their throat). Their stature and meat quality were recorded.

Purpose:  To study the effect of different feeding plans on weight gain and meat quality of cross-bred calves. Breeding beef bulls to dairy cows and raising the calves reduces the need to keep and maintain beef mother cows. Changes to the calves’ diet were supposed to speed up their rumen development so that they gain more weight before winter.

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2020

Read more..

Summary:  Newborn calves were raised on various milk, pasture, and pellets combinations. They were slaughtered at two years old, and their “quality” was measured.


Procedure: Two hundred calves up to two weeks old were fed either:
a) a high milk diet with unlimited access to pasture before weaning at 12 weeks or
b) a low milk diet with pelleted concentrates before weaning at 7 to 8 weeks.
All calves were disbudded at 10 weeks and had unlimited access to a high- or low-quality pasture from weaning until 7 months old. From 7 months to slaughter at around two years old, all animals were treated the same, pasture-based with silage feeding. They were weighed regularly until standard commercial slaughter (electrical stunning and cutting their throat). Their stature and meat quality were recorded.

Purpose:  To study the effect of different feeding plans on weight gain and meat quality of cross-bred calves. Breeding beef bulls to dairy cows and raising the calves reduces the need to keep and maintain beef mother cows. Changes to the calves’ diet were supposed to speed up their rumen development so that they gain more weight before winter.

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2020

Summary:  The horn buds of young calves who were slightly sedated were burned off with a hot iron. Half of them received pain meds beforehand, and blood samples were taken before and after. After 24 hours, the second group received pain meds, too.


Procedure: Calves scheduled for routine horn disbudding at about one-month-old were divided into two groups. One group received pain relief before the procedure; the other did not. All calves were sedated and disbudded with a hot cautery iron. Blood samples were taken from all calves just before disbudding and twice after. The pain medication was given to the second group of calves after the final blood sample the next day.

Purpose:  To test the influence of pain medication on gene expression related to inflammation when calves are disbudded (removing their horn buds). Injured cells produce proteins called cytokines that increase the inflammatory reaction. Pain meds can decrease the related gene expression. They may also influence other genes in that pathway (for example, some growth genes).

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2020

Read more..

Summary:  The horn buds of young calves who were slightly sedated were burned off with a hot iron. Half of them received pain meds beforehand, and blood samples were taken before and after. After 24 hours, the second group received pain meds, too.


Procedure: Calves scheduled for routine horn disbudding at about one-month-old were divided into two groups. One group received pain relief before the procedure; the other did not. All calves were sedated and disbudded with a hot cautery iron. Blood samples were taken from all calves just before disbudding and twice after. The pain medication was given to the second group of calves after the final blood sample the next day.

Purpose:  To test the influence of pain medication on gene expression related to inflammation when calves are disbudded (removing their horn buds). Injured cells produce proteins called cytokines that increase the inflammatory reaction. Pain meds can decrease the related gene expression. They may also influence other genes in that pathway (for example, some growth genes).

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2020

Summary:  Two newborn calves from a C-section teaching class were unresponsive. They were treated with a technique known to work for horses.


Procedure: As part of a veterinary teaching exercise, ten calves were delivered by C-section. Two of those calves showed indifference to their surroundings, could not find the udder and refused to suckle (a condition called neonatal maladjustment syndrome). Both calves were treated successfully with a method used for foals with this condition:
A soft cotton rope was looped around their thorax three times, and pressure was applied to it for 20min. After the tension was loosened, both calves were more alert and exhibited normal behaviour within a day.

Purpose:  To present results of first aid for c-section calves who struggled to adjust. Two calves delivered during a C-section teaching class showed neonatal maladjustment syndrome (problems adjusting and breathing). This was treated like it would have been in foals.

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2019

Read more..

Summary:  Two newborn calves from a C-section teaching class were unresponsive. They were treated with a technique known to work for horses.


Procedure: As part of a veterinary teaching exercise, ten calves were delivered by C-section. Two of those calves showed indifference to their surroundings, could not find the udder and refused to suckle (a condition called neonatal maladjustment syndrome). Both calves were treated successfully with a method used for foals with this condition:
A soft cotton rope was looped around their thorax three times, and pressure was applied to it for 20min. After the tension was loosened, both calves were more alert and exhibited normal behaviour within a day.

Purpose:  To present results of first aid for c-section calves who struggled to adjust. Two calves delivered during a C-section teaching class showed neonatal maladjustment syndrome (problems adjusting and breathing). This was treated like it would have been in foals.

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2019

Summary:  Regular blood samples were taken from cows on three different farms. Only some were treated against the parasite. Milk production and fertility were recorded.


Procedure: Three dairy farms were selected based on their risk level regarding Ikeda infections (located in high, medium and low-risk areas). Farms were visited monthly for the whole milking season (August to April/May), and the low-risk farm was visited every other month. At each visit, blood samples were taken from the same cows. Milk production and fertility data were recorded. One farm treated some animals with buparvaquone; three of these cows were part of this study. One died shortly after treatment, and another was slaughtered.

Purpose:  To estimate the infection rate with Ikeda of dairy herds in NZ. The parasite lives in the blood and spreads mainly through ticks. Ikeda infection is currently the principal cause of bovine anaemia in New Zealand. It decreases productivity and fertility before becoming chronic and often asymptomatic. The one existing drug against Ikeda (buparvaquone) leads to long waiting periods before meat or milk can be sold, so it’s a severe threat to profit.

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2019

Read more..

Summary:  Regular blood samples were taken from cows on three different farms. Only some were treated against the parasite. Milk production and fertility were recorded.


Procedure: Three dairy farms were selected based on their risk level regarding Ikeda infections (located in high, medium and low-risk areas). Farms were visited monthly for the whole milking season (August to April/May), and the low-risk farm was visited every other month. At each visit, blood samples were taken from the same cows. Milk production and fertility data were recorded. One farm treated some animals with buparvaquone; three of these cows were part of this study. One died shortly after treatment, and another was slaughtered.

Purpose:  To estimate the infection rate with Ikeda of dairy herds in NZ. The parasite lives in the blood and spreads mainly through ticks. Ikeda infection is currently the principal cause of bovine anaemia in New Zealand. It decreases productivity and fertility before becoming chronic and often asymptomatic. The one existing drug against Ikeda (buparvaquone) leads to long waiting periods before meat or milk can be sold, so it’s a severe threat to profit.

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2019

Summary:  New mother cows had blood samples taken. If the sample was negative for a diarrhoea virus, they were sampled again after a while.


Procedure: Over 1,000 cows with their first calves were chosen, and blood samples were taken from the mothers. All animals with a negative test result for antibodies against the diarrhoea virus were resampled later. Farmers filled out a questionnaire about their farming practices and management.

Purpose:  To study how diarrhoea infections spread in grazing beef cattle. These rates would be lower than for intensively farmed dairy cows. Animals might not have enough immunity before pregnancy (when the infection will be passed to the unborn calf). The calf becomes persistently infected, shedding large amounts of virus material throughout its life.

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2019

Read more..

Summary:  New mother cows had blood samples taken. If the sample was negative for a diarrhoea virus, they were sampled again after a while.


Procedure: Over 1,000 cows with their first calves were chosen, and blood samples were taken from the mothers. All animals with a negative test result for antibodies against the diarrhoea virus were resampled later. Farmers filled out a questionnaire about their farming practices and management.

Purpose:  To study how diarrhoea infections spread in grazing beef cattle. These rates would be lower than for intensively farmed dairy cows. Animals might not have enough immunity before pregnancy (when the infection will be passed to the unborn calf). The calf becomes persistently infected, shedding large amounts of virus material throughout its life.

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2019

Summary:  Udders of dairy cows were slightly cut with a scalpel, and a tissue sample was taken with a biopsy needle.


Procedure: Tissue samples were taken from lactating dairy cows’ udders for genome sequencing. An incision is made with a scalpel, and a tissue sample is taken with a biopsy needle about 5cm deep. The researchers also mention samples from a genome-wide association study performed on 65,500 mixed-breed dairy cows without note of the type of sampling.

Purpose:  To find a gene location responsible for stature. The researchers expected a link between mammary and stature gene encoding. A specific gene for body frame and udder would be used for selective breeding.

Source: Conference proceedings

Year published: 2018

Read more..

Summary:  Udders of dairy cows were slightly cut with a scalpel, and a tissue sample was taken with a biopsy needle.


Procedure: Tissue samples were taken from lactating dairy cows’ udders for genome sequencing. An incision is made with a scalpel, and a tissue sample is taken with a biopsy needle about 5cm deep. The researchers also mention samples from a genome-wide association study performed on 65,500 mixed-breed dairy cows without note of the type of sampling.

Purpose:  To find a gene location responsible for stature. The researchers expected a link between mammary and stature gene encoding. A specific gene for body frame and udder would be used for selective breeding.

Source: Conference proceedings

Year published: 2018

Summary:  Pregnant cows were fed a fertiliser component at different concentrations. Blood and urine samples were taken from some animals. Four cows lost their unborn calves, and eight cows died/had to be killed.


Procedure: Cows who were between 3.5 and 5 months pregnant received different amounts of dicyandiamide in their morning feeding (none at all, calculated maximum dosage in farming practice, three times the maximum, and five times the maximum). Daily health checks were performed, and blood and urine samples were taken from selected animals. Visibly ill cows were tested further and treated. Signs of poisoning included rash, low white blood cells or platelets, fever, weight loss, dehydration and depression. Later dissections showed inflammation, ulcers, and abnormal lymph nodes. Four of the treated cows miscarried. One cow on the highest dosage became ill on day 28 and died four days later. Seven other animals became sick, so they had to be euthanised. Dicyandiamide treatment was stopped earlier than planned, but symptoms persisted for several weeks.

Purpose:  To test if dicyandiamide is too poisonous for pregnant cows. Dicyandiamide is an ingredient for plastic, fertiliser and chemical production. It inhibits the breakdown of ammonium and could be used to limit nitrogen loss from grazing cattle into groundwater.

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2018

Read more..

Summary:  Pregnant cows were fed a fertiliser component at different concentrations. Blood and urine samples were taken from some animals. Four cows lost their unborn calves, and eight cows died/had to be killed.


Procedure: Cows who were between 3.5 and 5 months pregnant received different amounts of dicyandiamide in their morning feeding (none at all, calculated maximum dosage in farming practice, three times the maximum, and five times the maximum). Daily health checks were performed, and blood and urine samples were taken from selected animals. Visibly ill cows were tested further and treated. Signs of poisoning included rash, low white blood cells or platelets, fever, weight loss, dehydration and depression. Later dissections showed inflammation, ulcers, and abnormal lymph nodes. Four of the treated cows miscarried. One cow on the highest dosage became ill on day 28 and died four days later. Seven other animals became sick, so they had to be euthanised. Dicyandiamide treatment was stopped earlier than planned, but symptoms persisted for several weeks.

Purpose:  To test if dicyandiamide is too poisonous for pregnant cows. Dicyandiamide is an ingredient for plastic, fertiliser and chemical production. It inhibits the breakdown of ammonium and could be used to limit nitrogen loss from grazing cattle into groundwater.

Source: Journal article

Year published: 2018

READ MORE